Dependency theory and neo-colonialism

   1. Institutional Friction: Many nations had complex, functional systems (like the communal land ownership in parts of Africa or the tribute systems in pre-colonial Asia) that were dismantled overnight. Replacing indigenous governance with Eurocentric models often created a "mismatch" where the new institutions served the colonizers’ extraction goals rather than the local population's needs.

   2. Structural Path Dependency: Even after independence, many developing nations were left with "extractive economies." Their infrastructure (roads, rails, ports) was built specifically to move raw materials out to the West, not to facilitate internal trade. Breaking that cycle is incredibly expensive and difficult.

   3. Modern Exploitation: You mentioned political bribery and residual colonialism. Today, this often manifests as debt traps, unfavorable trade agreements, and "capital flight," where multinational corporations extract wealth from a country’s natural resources while paying minimal taxes or using local elites to maintain the status quo. 

Essentially, these countries weren't "behind"—they were forcibly redirected into a global system where the rules were written by someone else to ensure they remained the suppliers of raw labor and materials.